• Attentional control in auditory environments reveals both benefits and costs of ignoring irrelevant sounds; aging modulates inhibition and elevates susceptibility to distraction, shaping downstream memory and performance [1], [6], [12], [18].

• Perceptual effort from degraded or rapid speech imposes greater cognitive load, reducing recall and speech understanding in older adults; aging interacts with hearing loss to alter processing strategies [2], [5], [9], [20].

• Cognitive resources, notably working memory, underpin spoken-word recognition and learning in cochlear implant users; cognitive tests and memory measures predict outcomes and guide rehabilitation [3], [16], [13], [14].

• Clinical and educational assessment of auditory processing disorders and language impairment informs diagnosis and intervention; consensus criteria and metacognitive approaches shape testing in children [11], [19], [15], [8].

• Neurophysiological and psychoacoustic studies reveal developmental differences in auditory memory and processing, using MMN, loudness tracking, and dichotic tasks to map maturation of auditory cognition [4], [17], [18], [1].